Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made.
Background
Notes:
Extinct languages or families are indicated by: †.
The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages).
Out of convenience, the following list of language families is divided in 3 sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, & South America) but are not equivalent. This division also does not cleanly delineate indigenous culture areas. Language families (& isolates)
Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well-studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:
Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.
It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that area — much smaller than SA, to be sure — is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size.
As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.
The list of language families and isolates below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.
Aguano †
Ahuaqué (also known as Auaké, Uruak, Awaké)
Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)
Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí) †
Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke)
Andoquero †
Arauan (9) †
Arutani-Sape (2) (also known as Arutani-sapé)
Aushiri (also known as Auxira)
Aymaran (3)
Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã) †
Barbacoan (8)
Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara) †
Bororoan
Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré)
Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)
Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche)
Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi)
Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana)
Carabayo
Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib)
Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan) †
Cayubaba (Bolivia)
Chapacura-Wanham (9) (also known as Chapacuran, Txapakúran)
Charruan (also known as Charrúan) †
Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
Chimuan (3) †
Chipaya-Uru languages (also known as Uru-Chipaya)
Chiquitano
Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan)
Cholonan †
Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian)
Coeruna (Brazil) †
Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
Cueva
Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi)
Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) †
Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame) †
Fulnió
Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) †
Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) †
Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)
Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan) †
Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo) †
Guató
Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri)
Hoti (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hodi, Waruwaru)
Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)
Huarpe (also known as Warpe) †
Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto)
Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) †
Jabutian
Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)
Jeikó †
Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro)
Kaimbe
Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
Kamakanan †
Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)
Karajá
Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) †
Katembrí †
Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan)
Kawésqar (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)
Koihoma (Peru) †
Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia) †
Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso) †
Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)
Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté)
Maipurean (South America & Caribbean) (64) (also known as Maipuran, Arawakan, Arahuacan)
Maku language (also known as Macu)
Malibú (also known as Malibu)
Mapudungu (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)
Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)
Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan)
Matanawí †
Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían)
Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) †
Mochita †
Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén)
Movima (Bolivia)
Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche)
Muran (4)
Mutú (also known as Loco)
Muzo (Colombia) †
Nambiquaran (5)
Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
Ofayé
Old Catío-Nutabe (Colombia) †
Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) †
Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) †
Otomacoan (2) †
Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe)
Pakarara †
Palta
Panche †
Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Pano-Tacanan (33)
Pantagora †
Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo)
Patagón
Peba-Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) †
Pijao
Puelche (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) †
Puinavean (8) (also known as Makú)
Puquina (Bolivia) †
Purian (2) †
Quechuan (46)
Resígaro (Colombia-Peru border area)
Rikbaktsá
Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan)
Salumã (Brazil)
Sechura language (Atalan, Sec) †
Tairona (Colombia) †
Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) †
Taruma †
Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche)
Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri) †
Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina)
Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
Timotean (2) †
Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, pamigua) †
Tucanoan (15)
Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
Tupian (70)
Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) †
South AmericaAlagüilac (Guatemala)'†
Algic (United States, Canada & Mexico) (29)
Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
Coahuilteco †
Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) †
Cotoname †
Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
Guaicurian (8)
Huetar (Costa Rica)
Huave
Jicaquean
Lencan
Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
Mayan (31)
Misumalpan
Mixe-Zoquean (19)
Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (40)
Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
Oto-Manguean (27)
P'urhépecha
Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
Seri
Solano †
Tequistlatecan (3)
Totonacan (2)
Uto-Aztecan (United States & Mexico) (33)
Xincan
Yuman-Cochimí (United States & Mexico) (11)
Mexico and Central AmericaThere are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The Nadene, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Nadene comes in second with approximately 180,200 speakers (148,500 of these are speakers of Navajo). Nadene and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Nadene spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships have proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-)family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families and isolates remain.
North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California where it alone has 18 genetic units consisting of 74 languages (compare to the mere 4 genetic units in all of Europe: Basque, Indo-European, Uralic, and Turkic). Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeast; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from historical record. This diversity has been and continues to be very influential in the development of linguistic thought in the U.S.
Due to the diversity of this area, it is difficult to make generalizations that adequately characterize the entire region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. four or five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for their complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely). The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afro-Asiatic and Caucasian languages). Ejective consonants are also common in North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and the Mayan family).
Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo-Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of Kiowa-Tanoan, the lexical affixes of Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan, and the unusual verb structure of Nadene.
The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999).
Adai †
Algic (30)
Alsean (2) †
Atakapa †
Beothuk †
Caddoan (5)
Cayuse †
Chimakuan (2)
Chimariko †
Chinookan (3)
Chitimacha †
Chumashan (6) †
Coahuilteco †
Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) †
Coosan (2) †
Cotoname †
Eskimo-Aleut (7)
Esselen †
Haida
Iroquoian (11)
Kalapuyan (3) †
Karankawa †
Karuk
Keresan (2)
Kiowa-Tanoan (7)
Kutenai
Maiduan (4)
Muskogean (9)
Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (39)
Natchez †
Palaihnihan (2)
Plateau Penutian (4) (also known as Shahapwailutan)
Pomoan (7)
Salinan †
Salishan (23)
Shastan (4) †
Siouan-Catawban (19)
Siuslaw †
Solano †
Takelma †
Timucua †
Tonkawa †
Tsimshianic (2)
Tunica †
Utian (15) (also known as Miwok-Costanoan)
Uto-Aztecan (33)
Wakashan (7)
Washo
Wintuan (4)
Yana †
Yokutsan (3)
Yuchi
Yuki-Wappo (2) † disputed
Yuman-Cochimí (11)
Zuni United States, Canada and Greenland
Many hypothetical language phylum proposals concerning American languages are often cited as uncontroversially demonstrated in more popular writings. However, many of these proposals have, in fact, not been fully demonstrated if even at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock"). Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:
Good discussions of past proposals are found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).
Ahuaque-Kalianan
Algonkian-Gulf (= Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
Algonquian-Wakashan (also known as Almosan)
Almosan-Keresiouan (= Almosan + Keresiouan)
Amerind (= all languages excepting Eskimo-Aleut & Na-Dené)
(macro-)Arawakan
Aztec-Tanoan (= Uto-Aztecan + Kiowa-Tanoan)
Chibchan stock
Chibchan-Paezan
Chikitano-Boróroan
Coahuiltecan (= Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
Cunza-Kapixanan
Dene-Caucasian
Esmeralda-Yaruroan
Guamo-Chapacuran
Gulf (= Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
Hokan (= Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman-Cochimí + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
Hokan-Siouan (= Hokan + Subtiaba-Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Keresan + Tunican + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Siouan-Catawba + Yuchi + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
Javaroan-Cahuapanan
Je-Tupi-Carib
Kalianan
Kaweskar language area
Keresiouan (= Keres + Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan + Yuchi)
Lule-Vilelan
Macro-Andean
Macro-Arawakan
Macro-Carib
Macro-Gê (also known as Macro-Jê)
Macro-Katembrí-Taruma
Macro-Kulyi-Cholónan
Macro-Lekoan
Macro-Mayan
Macro-Otomákoan
Macro-Paesan
Macro-Panoan
Macro-Puinávean
Macro-Siouan (= Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
Macro-Tekiraka-Kanichana
Macro-Tucanoan
Macro-Tupí-Karibe
Macro-Waikurúan
Macro-Warpean
Mosan (= Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
Mosetén-Chonan
Mura-Matanawian
Sapir's Na-Dené including Haida (= Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
Nostratic-Amerind
Paezan (= Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)
Paezan-Barbacoan
Penutian (= many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)
- California Penutian (= Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
Oregon Penutian (= Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
Mexican Penutian (= Mixe-Zoque + Huave)
Quechumaran
Takelman (= Takelma + Kalapuyan)
Tunican (= Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
Yok-Utian
Yuri-Ticunan
Zaparoan-Yaguan Language stock proposals
Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
Hudson Strait Pidgin
Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
Eskimo Trade Jargon (also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
Mednyj Aleut (also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
Haida Jargon
Chinook Jargon
Nootka Jargon
Broken Slavey (also known as Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
Kutenai Jargon
Loucheux Jargon (also known as Jargon Loucheux)
Inuktitut-English Pidgin
Michif (also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
Bungee (also known as Bungi) (?)
Broken Oghibbeway (also known as Broken Ojibwa)
Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
Montagnais Pidgin Basque (also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
American Indian Pidgin English
Delaware Jargon (also known as Pidgin Delaware)
Pidgin Massachusett
Jargonized Powhatan
Ocaneechi
Lingua Franca Creek
Lingua Franca Apalachee
Mobilian Jargon (also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)
Güegüence-Nicarao
Carib Pidgin (also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
Guajiro-Spanish
Media Lengua
Catalangu
Callahuaya (also known as Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya jargon)
Lingua Geral Amazônica (also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
Lingua Geral do Sul (also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
Plains Indian Sign Language Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages
Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.
Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.
Ais
Akokisa
Aksana (Akasanas, Kaueskar)
Aramana
Ausaima
Avoyel
Bayogoula
Bidai
Cacán (Diaguita-Calchaquí)
Calusa
Chome
Cusabo
Eyeish
Grigra
Guale
Houma
Koroa
Manek'enk (Haush)
Mobila
Okelousa
Opelousa
Pascagoula
Pensacola
Quinipissa
Taensa
Tequesta
Tiou
Yamacraw
Yamasee
Yazoo Unattested languages
The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity. Knowing about Sprachbunds help historical linguists differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The pioneering work on American areal linguistics was a dissertation by Joel Sherzer which was published as Sherzer (1976). The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997):
Northern Northwest Coast
Northwest Coast
Plateau
Northern California
Clear Lake
South Coast Range
Southern California-Western Arizona
Great Basin
Pueblo
Plains
Northeast
Southeast
Mesoamerican
Colombian-Central American
Venezuelan-Antillean
Andean
- Ecuadoran-Colombian (subarea)
Orinoco-Amazon
Amazonas (also known as Amazonia)
Lowland South America
Southern Cone Linguistic areas
Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas
Mesoamerican languages
Language families and languages
Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Category:Indigenous languages of the Americas (division into geocultural areas)
List of indigenous languages in Argentina
Languages of Peru See also
Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3-29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-009846-6.
Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Ecuadoran-Colombian (subarea)
