Best Supporting Actor 1993 Unforgiven
Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture 1993 Unforgiven Best Actor - Motion Picture Muscial/Comedy 2002 The Royal Tenenbaums Cecil B. DeMille Award (2003)
Gene Hackman (born Eugene Allen Hackman on January 30, 1930) is a two-time Academy Award-winning American actor. He came to fame during the 1970s, after his role in The French Connection, and has continued to appear in major roles in Hollywood films.

Biography
Hackman was born in San Bernardino, California, to Eugene Ezra Hackman, a newspaper pressman, and Lyda Gray. He has a brother, Richard. Hackman's parents divorced while he was a child, and he moved from one place to another until finally settling in Danville, Illinois, where he lived with his grandmother, Beatrice, who raised him. His mother died in 1962, as a result of a fire she accidentally set while smoking. At sixteen, Hackman left home to join the U.S. Marine Corps, where he served 3 years as a field radio operator. Having finished his service, he moved to New York, working in several minor jobs before moving to study television production and journalism at the University of Illinois under the G.I. Bill.

Early life

Career
Already over 30 years old, Hackman decided to become an actor, and joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California. It was there that he forged a friendship with another aspiring actor, Dustin Hoffman. Already seen as outsiders by their classmates, Hackman and Hoffman were later voted "The Least Likely To Succeed". Determined to prove them wrong, Hackman hopped on a bus bound for New York City. A 2004 article in Vanity Fair described how Hackman, Hoffman and Robert Duvall were all struggling actors and close friends while living in New York City in the 1960s. Hackman was working as a doorman when he ran into an instructor whom he had despised at the Pasadena Playhouse. Reinforcing "The Least Likely To Succeed" vote, the man had said "See Hackman, I told you you wouldn't amount to anything." (Some reports allege that it was one of his former drill instructors from the Marines who saw him there and told him this.)
Hackman began performing in several off-Broadway plays. Finally, in 1964, he had the offer to play on Broadway, which opened the door to film work. His first role was in Lilith, with Warren Beatty in the leading role. Another supporting role, Buck Barrow, in 1967's Bonnie and Clyde, earned him an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actor.

1960s
In 1970, he was again nominated for the same award, this time for I Never Sang for My Father, working alongside Melvyn Douglas and Estelle Parsons. The next year he won the Best Actor award for his memorable performance as Popeye Doyle in The French Connection, marking his graduation to leading man status. He followed this with leading roles in the disaster film The Poseidon Adventure (1972) and Francis Ford Coppola's The Conversation (1974). That same year, Hackman appeared in one of his most famous comedic roles as the Blindman in Young Frankenstein. He later appeared in the star-studded war film A Bridge Too Far (1977), and showed a talent for both comedy and the "slow burn" as Lex Luthor in Superman: The Movie (1978) and Superman II (1980).

1970s
By the end of the 1980s, Hackman was a well respected actor and alternated between leading and supporting roles, earning another Best Actor nomination for Mississippi Burning, and appearing in such films as Reds, Under Fire, Hoosiers and Bat*21.

1990s
He starred in Heist as an aging professional thief of considerable skill who is forced into taking one final heist, all the while he has been "burned," his face having been seen on tape during a previous job. David Mamet wrote and directed the film, Delroy Lindo and Danny DeVito also starred.

2000s
Despite probably lacking the iconic status of contemporaries, such as Robert De Niro, Al Pacino or Jack Nicholson, Hackman has an ability to disappear into the roles he plays, blending a character actor aesthetic with his leading man status. He is also unusually versatile, able to play hard-edged roles, such as in The French Connection and Mississippi Burning as well as convincing comedic turns in fare such as The Birdcage and The Royal Tenenbaums. Together with undersea archaeologist Daniel Lenihan, Hackman also wrote two novels: Wake of the Perdido Star (1999) and Justice for None (2004).
His distinctive voice can be heard in television commercials from time-to-time, notably for United Airlines, GTE, CNN, and more recently for Oppenheimer Funds and Lowe's Home Improvement. He will be using that talent as Police Supervisor Al Bressler in the Dirty Harry (video game), reuniting him with Unforgiven and Absolute Power star/director Clint Eastwood.

Present
Hackman's first wife was Faye Maltese. They had three children, Christopher Allen, Elizabeth Jean, and Leslie Anne, but the couple divorced in 1986 after 30 years of marriage. In 1991, Hackman married Betsy Arakawa. They live in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Betsy is co-owner of an upscale retail home-furnishing store in Santa Fe, called Pandora's, Inc. On July 7, 2004, Hackman gave a rare interview to Larry King, in which he announced that he had no future film projects lined up, and believes his acting career is over.

Academy Awards and nominations
Hawaii (1966) • Bonnie & Clyde (1967) • The Gypsy Moths (1969) • Downhill Racer (1969) • Marooned (1969) • I Never Sang for My Father (1970) • The Hunting Party (1971) • The French Connection (1971) • Prime Cut (1972) • The Poseidon Adventure (1972) • Scarecrow (1973) • The Conversation (1974) • French Connection II (1975) • Night Moves (1975) • Bite the Bullet (1975) • The Domino Principle (1977) • A Bridge Too Far (1977) • March or Die (1977) • Superman: The Movie (1978) • Superman II (1980) • All Night Long (1981) • Reds (1981) • Under Fire (1983) • Uncommon Valor (1983) • Eureka (1984) • Misunderstood (1984) • Twice in a Lifetime (1985) • Target (1985) • Hoosiers (1986) • No Way Out (1987) • Superman IV (1987) • Bat*21 (1988) • Mississipi Burning (1988) • The Package (1989) • Loose Cannons (1990) • Postcards from the Edge (1990) • Narrow Margin (1990) • Class Action (1991) • Unforgiven (1992) • The Firm (1993) • Geronimo: An American Legend (1993) • The Quick and the Dead (1995) • Crimson Tide (1995) • Get Shorty (1995) • The Birdcage (1996) • Extreme Measures (1996) • The Chamber (1996) • Absolute Power (1997) • Twilight (1998) • Enemy of the State (1998) • Antz (1998) • Under Suspicion (2000) • The Replacements (2000) • Heist (2001) • The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) • Behind Enemy Lines (2001) • Runaway Jury (2003) • Welcome to Mooseport (2004)

†Rutocerina †Lirocerina Nautilina
Nautilida is an order of mostly prehistoric cephalopods that includes the modern nautiluses and their immediate ancestors and relatives. All recent nautiloids are included in this group. This was a large and diverse group from the Late Paleozoic through to the Middle Cenozoic. Between 24 and 34 families and 165 to 184 genera are recognised, making it the largest order of the Nautiloidea. Today the group is represented only by the six species of the genera Nautilus and Allonautilus.

Umberto I, King of Italy or Humbert I of Italy (Umberto Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di Savoy), (14 March 1844 – 29 July 1900) was the King of Italy from 9 January 1878 until his death. He was deeply loathed in left-wing circles, especially among anarchists, because of his hard-line conservatism and support of the Bava Beccaris massacre in Milan. He was killed by anarchist Gaetano Bresci two years after the incident. He was the only head of the Italian state to be assassinated.

Reign
While on a tour of the kingdom, accompanied by Premier Benedetto Cairoli, he was attacked by an anarchist, Giovanni Passannante, during a parade in Naples on (November 17, 1878). The king warded off the blow with his sabre, but Cairoli, in attempting to defend him, was severely wounded in the thigh. The would-be assassin was condemned to death, but the king commuted the sentence to one of penal servitude for life. The incident upset the health of Queen Margherita for several years.

First assassination attempt
The reign of Umberto I was a time of social upheaval, though it was later claimed to have been a tranquil belle époque. Social tensions mounted as a consequence of the relatively recent occupation of the kingdom of the two Sicilies, the spread of socialist ideas, public hostility to the colonialist plans of the various governments, especially Crispi's, and the numerous crackdowns on civil liberties. The protesters included the young, then left-wing, Benito Mussolini.

Turmoil
In foreign policy Umberto I approved the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, repeatedly visiting Vienna and Berlin. Many in Italy, however, viewed with hostility an alliance with the former Austrian enemies in the independence wars, who were still occupying areas claimed by Italy.
He was also favourably disposed towards the policy of colonial expansion inaugurated in 1885 by the occupation of Massawa. He was suspected of aspiring to a vast empire in north-east Africa, a suspicion which tended somewhat to diminish his popularity after the disaster of Adowa on 1 March 1896.

Alliances and colonialism

Main article: Bava-Beccaris massacre The Bava Beccaris massacre
Being increasingly unpopular, Umberto I was victim of yet another murder attempt, by an unemployed ironsmith, Pietro Acciarito, who tried to stab him near Rome on 22 April 1897.
Finally, he was murdered with four revolver shots by the Italo-American anarchist Gaetano Bresci in Monza, on the evening of 29 July 1900. Bresci claimed he wanted to avenge the people killed by Bava Beccaris. Official propaganda of the day gave the assassinated King the nickname "the Good".
He was buried in the Pantheon in Rome, by the side of his father Victor Emmanuel II, on 9 August 1900. He was also the last Savoy to be buried there, as his son and successor Victor Emmanuel III died in exile.

Titles and honours as King of Italy

"Remember to be a king all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper and mount a horse".

Part of a series on Libertarianism Agorism Anarcho-capitalism Geolibertarianism Green libertarianism Right-libertarianism Left-libertarianism Minarchism Neolibertarianism Paleolibertarianism Progressive libertarianism Austrian School Chicago School Classical liberalism Individualist anarchism Civil liberties Free markets Free trade Laissez-faire Liberty Individualism Non-aggression Private property Self-ownership Economic views Libertarian theorists History Movement Parties Theories of law Views of rights Criticism of libertarianism Libertarian Republican The Chicago school of economics is a school of thought favoring free-market economics practiced at and disseminated from the University of Chicago in the middle of the 20th century. The leaders were Nobel laureates George Stigler and Milton Friedman. Its attitudes towards economics are the intellectual heirs of the Austrian school of economics.
It is associated with neoclassical price theory and free market libertarianism, the refutation and rejection of Keynesianism in favor of monetarism (until the 1980s, when it turned to rational expectations), and the rejection of regulation of business in favor of laissez-faire. In terms of methodology the stress is on "positive economics" -- that is, empirically based studies using statistics, with less stress on theory.
The school is noted for its very wide range of topics, from regulation to marriage, slavery and demography.
The term was coined in the 1950s to refer to economists teaching in the Economics Department at the University of Chicago, and closely related academic areas at the University such as the Graduate School of Business and the Law School. They met together in frequent intense discussions that helped set a group outlook on economic issues, based on price theory. The 1950s saw the height of popularity of the Keynesian school of economics, so the members of the University of Chicago were considered outcast. Famed economist Friedrich Hayek was teaching there because that is the only place he could find employment at the time [1].
Not all economists within the the Department of Economics at the University of Chicago shared the beliefs in the "Chicago school". The U of C department, widely considered one of the world's foremost economics departments, has fielded more Nobel Prize winners and John Bates Clark medalists in economics than any other university. Fewer than half of the professors in the economics department were considered part of the school of thought.
Chicago School theories lay behind many of the policies of the World Bank and other Washington-based financial institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund and U.S. Treasury Department , which embraced market fundamentalism as an universal recipe for economically wrecked countries, as was expressed in the Washington consensus. Under its influence, from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, large portions of the state-owned companies in many Third World countries were privatized. (Mason 1997:428)

The Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation is a standing committee of the United States Senate in charge of all senate matters related to the following subjects:
It also studies and reviews matters relating to science and technology, oceans policy, transportation, communications, and consumer affairs, and reports on those findings.

Coast Guard
Coastal zone management
Communications
Highway safety
Inland waterways, except construction
Interstate commerce
Marine and ocean navigation, safety, and transportation
Marine fisheries
Merchant marine and navigation
Nonmilitary aeronautical and space sciences
Oceans, weather, and atmospheric activities
Panama Canal and other interoceanic canals
Regulation of consumer products and services, including testing related to toxic substances, other than pesticides, and except for credit, financial services, and housing
Regulation of interstate common carriers, including railroads, buses, trucks, vessels, pipelines, and civil aviation
Science, engineering, and technology research and development and policy
Sports
Standards and measurement
Transportation
Transportation and commerce aspects of Outer Continental Shelf lands Membership, 110th Congress

Subcommittees
The original progenitors of this committee were:

United States Senate Committee on Commerce and Manufactures (1816-1825)
United States Senate Committee on Commerce (1825-1946, 1961-1977)
United States Senate Committee on Manufactures (1825-1855, 1864-1946)
United States Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce (1885-1946)
United States Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals (1899-1946)
United States Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce (1946-1961)
United States Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences (1958-1977) History

Chairmen

William Hunter (F-RI) 1816-1817
Nathan Sanford (R-NY) 1817-1820
Mahlon Dickerson (R-NJ) 1820-1825 Committee on Commerce and Manufactures, 1816-1825

James Lloyd (NR-MA) 1825-1826
Josiah Johnston (NR-LA) 1826-1827
Levi Woodbury (D-NH) 1827-1831
John Forsyth (D-GA) 1831-1832
William R. King (D-AL) 1832-1833
Nathaniel Silsbee (W-MA) 1833-1835
John Davis (W-MA) 1835-1836
William R. King (D-AL) 1836-1841
Jabez Huntington (W-CT) 1841-1845
William Haywood (D-NC) 1845-1846
John Dix (D-NY) 1846-1849
Hannibal Hamlin (D-ME) 1849-1856
Henry Dodge (D-WI) 1856-1857
Clement Claiborne Clay (D-AL) 1857-1861
Zachariah Chandler (R-MI) 1861-1875
Roscoe Conkling (R-NY) 1875-1879
John B. Gordon (D-GA) 1879-1880
Matt Ransom (D-GA) 1880-1881
Samuel J. R. McMillan (R-MN) 1881-1887
William P. Frye (R-ME) 1887-1893
Matt Ransom (D-NC) 1893-1895
William P. Frye (R-ME) 1895-1911
Knute Nelson (R-MN) 1911-1913
James P. Clarke (D-AR) 1913-1916
Duncan U. Fletcher (D-FL) 1916-1919
Wesley L. Jones (R-WA) 1919-1930
Hiram W. Johnson (R-CA) 1930-1933
Hubert D. Stephens (D-MS) 1933-1935
Royal S. Copeland (D-NY) 1935-1939
Josiah W. Bailey (D-NC) 1939-1947 Committee on Interstate Commerce, 1887-1947

Wallace H. White, Jr. (R-ME) 1947-1949
Edwin C. Johnson (D-CO) 1949-1953
Charles W. Tobey (R-NH) 1953
John W. Bricker (R-OH) 1953-1955
Warren G. Magnuson (D-WA) 1955-1961 Committee on Commerce, 1961-1977

Warren G. Magnuson (D-WA) 1977-1978
Howard W. Cannon (D-NV) 1978-1981
Bob Packwood (R-OR) 1981-1985
John Danforth (R-MO) 1985-1987
Ernest F. Hollings (D-SC) 1987-1995
Larry Pressler (R-SD) 1995-1997
John McCain (R-AZ) 1997-2001
Ernest F. Hollings (D-SC) 2001
John McCain (R-AZ) 2001
Ernest F. Hollings (D-SC) 2001-2003
John McCain (R-AZ) 2003-2005
Ted Stevens (R-AK) 2005-2007
Daniel K. Inouye (D-HI) 2007-

A side dish, sometimes referred to as a side order or simply a side, is a food item that accompanies the entrée or main course at a meal. A typical meal with a meat-based main dish might include one vegetable side dish, sometimes in the form of a salad, and one starch side dish, such as bread, potatoes, rice, or pasta.
Some common sides are:
Some restaurants offer a limited selection of side dishes that are included with the price of the entrée as a combination meal. Other times side dishes are ordered separately from an a la carte menu.
French fries are the most common side dish served at fast-food restaurants and other American cuisine restaurants. In response to criticism about the high fat and calorie content of french fries, some fast-food chains have recently begun to offer other side dishes, such as salads, as substitutes for the standard french fries with their combination meals.
When used as an adjective qualifying the name of a dish, side usually refers to a smaller portion served as a side dish, rather than a large main dish serving. For example, a "side salad" is usually served in a small bowl or salad plate, in contrast to a large dinner-plate-sized entrée salad.
A related term is on the side. In some instances this is a synonym for side dish, such as "french fries on the side". It can also refer to a sauce, salad dressing, or condiment served in a separate dish from the food item it accompanies. For example, in restaurants one can request that one's side salad be served with dressing on the side.

French fries or steak fries
Baked potatoes
Various vegetables
Soups
Salad (often a "side" salad)
Dinner rolls or other breads

Censorship by Google is Google corporation's willful removal or lack of inclusion of certain information from its services. Such policies have resulted in controversy and have drawn accusations of ethics violations and bias.

Web search
On October 22, 2002, a study reported that approximately 113 Internet sites had been removed from the German and French versions of Google.

Germany and France

Main article: Google China China
In 2002 Google was found to have censored websites that provided information about Scientology, in compliance with the United States' DMCA legislation.[2] [3]
Google replaced the banned results with links to the DMCA complaint that caused the site to be removed. The DMCA complaint contains the site to be removed, and the organizations that requested the removal (e.g. [4]) The publicity stemming from this incident was the impetus for Google's making public of the DMCA notices on the Chilling Effects archive, which archives legal threats of all sorts made against Internet users and Internet sites.[5]

Scientology
On the 21st of September, 2006 [6], it was reported that Google had 'delisted' Inquisition 21st Century [7], a website which claims to challenge moral authoritarian and sexually absolutist ideas in the United Kingdom. According to Inquisition 21 themselves, Google was acting "in support of a campaign by law enforcement agencies in the US and UK to suppress emerging information about their involvement in major malpractice", allegedly exposed by their own investigation of and legal action against those who carried out Operation Ore, a groundbreaking, far reaching and much criticized law enforcement campaign against the viewers of child pornography [8].

Criticism of Child Pornography operation

Sites critical of Islam
On January 12, 2007, the news site Uruknet stopped appearing in the Google News index.

Site critical of U.S. policy
YouTube, a video sharing website and subsidiary of Google, has a Terms of Service that prohibits the posting of videos which violate copyrights or depict pornography, illegal acts, gratuitous violence, or hate speech. User-posted videos that violate such terms may be removed and replaced with a message stating "This video has been removed due to terms of use violation."

YouTube
In March 2007, satellite imagery on Google Maps showing post-Hurricane Katrina damage in the U.S. state of Louisiana was replaced with images from before the storm.

Advertising
On May 10, 2007, shareholders of Google voted down an anti-censorship proposal for the company. The text of the failed proposal stated that:
David Drummond, senior vice president for corporate development, said "Pulling out of China, shutting down Google.cn, is just not the right thing to do at this point....but that's exactly what this proposal would do."

Data that can identify individual users should not be hosted in Internet-restricting countries, where political speech can be treated as a crime by the legal system.
The company will not engage in pro-active censorship.
The company will use all legal means to resist demands for censorship. The company will only comply with such demands if required to do so through legally binding procedures.
Users will be clearly informed when the company has acceded to legally binding government requests to filter or otherwise censor content that the user is trying to access.
Users should be informed about the company's data retention practices, and the ways in which their data is shared with third parties.
The company will document all cases where legally binding censorship requests have been complied with, and that information will be publicly available.

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Christianity Portal
Biblical Theology is a discipline within Christian theology which studies the Bible from the perspective of understanding the progressive history of God revealing God's self to humanity following the Fall and throughout the Old Testament and New Testament. It particularly focuses on the epochs of the Old Testament in order to understand how each part of it ultimately points forward to fulfillment in the life mission of Jesus Christ.
Biblical theology seeks to understand a certain passage in the Bible in light of all of the Biblical history leading up to it. It asks questions of the text such as:
Biblical Theology puts individual texts in their historical context since what came before them is the foundation on which they are laid and what comes after is what they anticipate. Biblical Theology is sometimes called the "History of Special Revelation" since it deals with the unfolding and expanding nature of revelation as history progresses through the Bible.
The motivation for this branch of theology comes from such passages as Luke 24.27: "And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, (Jesus) explained to (the disciples) what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself." The assumption of this text seems to be that the Old Testament anticipated the Messiah and that Jesus fulfilled those prophecies. Thus, Biblical Theologians suggest that, in order to understand the intended meaning of a Biblical text, one must understand what the text points toward or back to. For instance, when reading about the sacrificial system in the Old Testament, Biblical Theologians follow the trajectory the Bible lays out for that system (namely, pointing to Jesus as the true sacrifice), and likewise, when a New Testament text refers back to the Old Testament (for example, Jesus being the son of David and heir of his covenant), they try to understand that text against its proper, specified background.
Biblical theology can be compared with and is complemented by systematic theology in that the former focuses on historical progression through out the Bible while the latter focuses on thematic progression. Systematic theology deals with a single topic in each place it is dealt with, whereas Biblical Theology seeks to follow the flow of "redemptive narrative" as it unfolds. In this way, Biblical Theology reflects the diversity of the Bible, while systematic theology reflects its unity.
The Christian concept of progressive revelation differs from the Islamic understanding in which successive revelations of God might annul former revelations, completely replacing them with a new truth. The Christian model within Biblical Theology sees the concept of progressive revelation as progressive revelation of new truth which supports, expands, and stands upon former revelations of God's truth like brick laying. This progressive revelation ultimately climaxes in Christ, and ends with the New Testament acts of the Apostles under the direction of the Holy Spirit awaiting the Second Coming of Christ.
The discipline of Biblical Theology is primarily associated with viewpoints that also adhere to a belief in biblical inerrancy and biblical inspiration. Consequently, the work of Walter Brueggemann, Rudolf Bultmann, and other such exegetes is not dealt with in the discipline. While it does engage with the work of philosophy and cultural and personal experience, it gives the Bible priority over each of these other lines of thought.

How much does this person or group know about the attributes of God?
To what extent are God's plans revealed, such as future plans of sending Jesus as the Messiah?
How has Israel responded to God's interactions with them up to this point?

Bean is a common name for large plant seeds of several genera of Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae) used for food or feed. They are also known as legumes.

History
Bean

Vicia

• Faba or broad bean
  
  
  

  
  

  
  

  Types of beans
  The following traditional uses of beans refer to the broad bean.
  
  In some folk legends, such as in Estonia and the common Jack and the Beanstalk story, magical beans grow tall enough to bring the hero to the clouds. The Grimm Brothers collected a story in which a bean splits its sides laughing at the failure of others.
  Dreaming of a bean is sometimes said to be a sign of impending conflict, though others said they caused bad dreams.
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Cultural aspects
  Some raw beans, for example kidney beans, contain harmful toxins (lectins) which need to be removed, usually by various methods of soaking and cooking. The soaking water from kidney beans should be discarded before boiling, and some authorities recommend changing the water during cooking as well. (though this should not be a problem if the food reaches boiling and stays there for some time).
  
  Flatulence
  
  Common bean
  Pulses
  List of edible seeds
  Baked beans
  Fassoulada

  Tuesday, November 20, 2007

  
  Jurisprudence is the theory and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal philosophers, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions. As jurisprudence has developed, there are three main aspects with which scholarly writing engages:
  Modern jurisprudence and philosophy of law is dominated today primarily by Western academics. The ideas of the Western legal tradition have become so pervasive throughout the world that it is tempting to see them as universal. Historically, however, many philosophers from other traditions have discussed the same questions, from Islamic scholars to the ancient Greeks.
  
  Natural law is the idea that there are unchangeable laws of nature which govern us, and that our institutions should try to match this natural law.
  Analytic jurisprudence asks questions like, "What is law?" "What are the criteria for legal validity?" or "What is the relationship between law and morality?" and other such questions that legal philosophers may engage.
  Normative jurisprudence asks what law ought to be. It overlaps with moral and political philosophy, and includes questions of whether one ought to obey the law, on what grounds law-breakers might properly be punished, the proper uses and limits of regulation, how judges ought to decide cases. Etymology
  Jurisprudence already had this meaning in Ancient Rome, even if at its origins the discipline was a monopoly of the College of Pontiffs (Pontifex), which retained an exclusive power of judgment on facts, being the only experts (periti) in the jus of traditional law (mos maiorum, a body of oral laws and customs verbally transmitted "by father to son"). Pontiffs indirectly created a body of laws by their pronunciations (sententiae) on single concrete (judicial) cases.
  Their sentences were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but effectively it was an activity that, apart from formally reconsidering for each case what precisely was traditionally in the legal habits, soon turned also to a more equitative interpretation, coherently adapting the law to the newer social instances. The law was then implemented with new evolutive Institutiones (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional scheme. Pontiffs were replaced in 3rd century BC by a laical body of prudentes. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience.
  Under the Roman Republic, schools of law were created, and the activity constantly became more academic. In the age from the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant literature was produced by some notable groups including the Proculians and Sabinians. The degree of scientific depth of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times and reached still unrivaled peaks of skill. It is about this activity that it has been said that Romans had developed an art out of the law.
  After the 3rd century, Juris prudentia became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors. It was during the Byzantine Empire (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was born.
  
  History of jurisprudence
  
  

  Main article: Natural law Natural law
  
  

  Main article: Aristotle Aristotle
  
  

  Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh Sharia
  
  

  Main article: Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas
  
  

  Main article: Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes
  
  

  Main article: Lon L. Fuller Lon Fuller
  
  

  Main article: John Finnis John Finnis
  
  

  Main article: Analytic jurisprudence Analytic jurisprudence
  
  

  Main article: Legal positivism Legal positivists
  
  

  Main articles: Jeremy Bentham and John Austin (legal philosopher) Bentham and Austin
  
  

  Main article: Hans Kelsen Hans Kelsen
  
  

  Main article: H.L.A. Hart H.L.A. Hart
  
  

  Main article: Joseph Raz Joseph Raz
  
  

  Main articles: Ronald Dworkin and Interpretivism Ronald Dworkin
  
  

  Main article: Legal realism Legal realism
  
  

  Main article: German Historical School The Historical School
  
  

  Main article: Political philosophy Normative jurisprudence
  
  

  Main article: Virtue jurisprudence Deontology
  
  

  Main article: Utilitarianism Utilitarianism
  
  

  Main articles: John Rawls and A Theory of Justice John Rawls
  
  Further reading
  
  General
  
  Thomas Aquinas
  John Austin (legal philosophy)
  Jeremy Bentham
  Emilio Betti
  Norberto Bobbio
  António Castanheira Neves
  Giorgio Del Vecchio
  Ronald Dworkin
  John Finnis
  Lon L. Fuller
  Leslie Green (philosopher)
  Robert P. George
  Germain Grisez
  H.L.A. Hart
  Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
  Wesley Hohfeld
  Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
  Immanuel Kant
  Ludwig Wittgenstein
  Hans Kelsen
  Hans Köchler
  Joel Feinberg
  David Lyons
  Neil MacCormick
  Karl Marx
  Karl Olivecrona
  Gustav Radbruch
  Joseph Raz
  Karl Renner
  Jeremy Waldron
  von Savigny
  Roberto Unger
  John Rawls

  Monday, November 19, 2007

  
  Wivenhoe Dam is a dam built across the Brisbane River that creates the artificial Lake Wivenhoe. The dam is located about 80 kilometres by road from the centre of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
  The dam holds a volume of water two and a half times the water in Sydney Harbour. The primary purpose of the dam is to provide a water storage for south-eastern Queensland as well as extra storage for mitigation of periodic flooding of the Brisbane River. The lake also forms part of the water storages for the Wivenhoe Power Station.
  
  Purpose
  Wivenhoe Dam consists of an earth and rock embankment 2.3 kilometres long and 50 metres high. It has a concrete spillway section on which five steel crest gates are installed. The gates, at 12 metres wide and 16.6 metres high, are amongst the largest of their type in the world.
  The dam has a total storage capacity of 2.61 km³, of which 1.16 km³ is used for urban water storage. 200 properties were acquired to provide the 337.50 square kilometres of land required for the dam. The catchment area is 5,554 square kilometres.
  The dam holds twice as much water as Sydney Harbour and is about seven times bigger than Hinze Dam at the Gold Coast. Wivenhoe Dam does contribute to the Gold Coast's water supply.
  
  Key facts
  As of 2007, the reservoir has diminished in the midst of Queensland's severe drought, and the original path of the Brisbane River has become increasingly visible. Pockets of isolated water have begun to form and an island has revealed itself towards the lake's centre.
  A previously unseen sandbar emerged from the waters of the lake towards the end of 2006. It presented a high risk that the power stations' water supply could prematuraly cease the supply of water from the Caboonbah pumping station.
  
  Drought
  Source
  
  Average annual rainfall: 940 mm
  Capacity – water supply: 1 165 000 ML
  Capacity – flood storage: 1 450 000 ML
  Submerged area at full supply level: 109.4 km²
  Stream Bed Level at Structure (AHD): 23 m
  Embankment or Crest Level (AHD): 79 m
  Type of Structure: Embankment (4 000 000 m³) and Concrete (140 000 m³)
  Year of Completion: 1985
  Length of Wall: 2 300 m
  Spillway Gates: 5 x 12.0 m x 16.6 m
  Regulator Valves: 2 x 1.5 m diameter
  Average Evaporation (mm/year): 1 872
  Hydro Electric Station/dam structure: 4.5 megawatts
  Design: Queensland Water Resources Commission

  Sunday, November 18, 2007

  
  An ice divide is the boundary on an ice sheet, ice cap or glacier separating opposing flow directions of ice, analogous to a water divide. Such ice divides are important for geochronology investigations using ice cores, because such coring is typically made on top of a dome of an ice sheet to avoid interferences caused by horizontal ice movement.
  

  Saturday, November 17, 2007

  
  The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. Please help improve the introduction to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page.
  
  H-cluster reductions
  
  The wine-whine merger is the merger of /ʍ/ or /hw/ (spelt wh) with /w/. It occurs in the speech of the great majority of English speakers.
  The hole-whole merger is the replacement of /ʍ/ with /h/ before the vowels /oː/ and /uː/ which occurred in Old English. Wh-cluster reductions
  The yew-hew merger is a process that occurs in some dialects of English that causes the cluster /hj/ to be reduced to /j/.
  
  Yew-hew merger
  The hl-cluster, hr-cluster and hn-cluster reductions are three reductions that occurred in Middle English that caused the consonant clusters /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ to be reduced to /l/, /r/, and /n/. For example, Old English hlāf, hring and hnutu became loaf, ring and nut in Modern English.
  
  hl-cluster, hr-cluster and hn-cluster reductions
  
  Y-cluster reductions
  Yod-dropping is the elision of the sound [j]. The term comes from the Hebrew letter yod, which represents [j].
  Yod-dropping before [uː] occurs in most varieties of English in the following environments:
  In yod-pronouncing dialects, the spellings eu, ew, ute, ue and ui, as in feud, few, mute, cue and suit generally indicate /juː/ or /ɪu/, while the spellings oo and ou, as in moon and soup generally indicate /uː/.
  
  After [tʃ, dʒ, j], for example chew [tʃuː], juice [dʒuːs], yew [juː]
  After /ɹ/, for example rude [ɹuːd]
  After consonant+/l/ clusters, for example blue [bluː]
  After /s/, for example suit [suːt]
  After /l/, for example lute [luːt]
  After /z/, for example Zeus [zuːs]
  After /θ/, for example enthusiasm [ɛnˈθuːziæzəm]
  After /t/, /d/ and /n/, for example tune [tuːn], dew [duː], new [nuː] Yod-dropping
  Yod-coalescence is a process that changes the clusters [dj], [tj], [sj] and [zj] into [dʒ], [tʃ], [ʃ] and [ʒ] respectively.
  This generally occurs in unstressed syllables in all varieties of English, except for the older RP varieties. Occurring in unstressed syllables, it leads to pronunciations such as the following:
  It also occurs in some accents in stressed syllables as in tune and dune. Yod-coalescence in stressed syllables occurs in Australian, Cockney and Estuary English. Yod-coalescence has traditionally been considered nonRP, and thus not used by RP speakers.
  See also
  
  List of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones Yod-coalescence
  
  Rap-wrap merger
  The not-knot merger is a reduction that occurs in modern English where the historical cluster /kn/ is reduced to /n/ making knot and not homophones. This reduction is complete in present English, although it has not happened in all varieties of Scots.
  
  Not-knot merger
  The nome-gnome merger is the reduction of the initial cluster /gn/ to /n/ that occurs in all dialects of present English. In Middle English, words spelt with gn like gnat, gnostic, gnome etc. had the cluster /gn/.
  
  Nome-gnome merger
  S-cluster reduction is the dropping of /s/ from the initial consonant clusters with voiceless plosives (environments /sp/, /st/, and /sk(ʷ)/) occurring in Caribbean English. After the initial /s/ is removed, the plosive is aspirated in the new word-initial environment, resulting in pronunciations such as:
  
  S-cluster reduction
  
  Final cluster reductions
  Final consonant cluster reduction is the nonstandard reduction of final consonant clusters in English occurring in African American Vernacular English and Caribbean English. The new final consonant may be slightly lengthened as an effect.
  Examples are:
  The plural of test and desk become tesses and desses by the same English rule that gives us plural messes from singular mess.
  
  Nonstandard final consonant cluster reduction
  The plum-plumb merger is the reduction of the final cluster /mb/ to /m/ that occurs in all dialects of present English. In early Middle English, words spelt with mb like plumb, lamb etc. had the cluster /mb/.
  
  Plum-plumb merger
  
  Consonant cluster alterations
  Yod-rhotacization is a process that occurs for some Southern AAVE speakers where /j/ is rhotacized to /r/ in consonant clusters causing pronunciations like:
  
  Yod-rhotacization
  S-cluster metathesis is the nonstandard metathesis of final consonant clusters starting with /s/ occurring in African American Vernacular English. and can still be found in some dialects of English including, of course, African American Vernacular English. It is, however, one of the most stigmatized features of AAVE, often commented on by teachers. It also persists in Ulster Scots as /aks/ and Jamaican English as /aːks/, from where it has entered the London dialect of British English as /ɑːks/.
  
  Scream-stream merger
  
  Phonological history of the English language
  Phonological history of English consonants
  

  
  
  • G-dropping
    Phonological history of English fricatives
    
    
    
    • H-dropping

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